Adjective
An adjective is a word that describes somebody or something. Old, white, busy, careful and horrible are all adjectives. Adjectives either come before a noun, or after verbs such as be, get, seem, look (linking verbs):
Abusy day I’m busy
Nice shoes those shoes look nice
Adjectives (and adverbs) can have comparative and superlative forms. The comparative + -er (for one-syllable adjectives, and some two-syllable) or more + adjective (for adjectives of two or more syllables):
Old - older
Hot - Hotter
Easy - Easier
Dangerous – more dangerous
The corresponding superlative forms are –est or most …
Small – smallest
Big – biggest
Funny – funniest
Important – most important
Adverb
Adverbs give extra meaning to a verb, an adjective, another adverb or a whole sentence:
I really enjoyed the party. (adverb + verb)
She’s really nice. (adverb + adjective)
He works really slowly. (adverb + adverb)
Really, he should do better. (adverb + sentence)
Many adverbs are formed by adding –ly to an adjective, for example quickly, dangerously, nicely, but there are many adverbs which do not end in –ly. Note too that some –ly words are adjectives, not adverbs (eg lovely, silly, friendly).
In many cases, adverbs tell us:
How (manner) slowly, happily, dangerously, carefully
Where (place) here, there, away, home, outside
When (time) now, yesterday, later, soon
How often (frequency) often, never, regularly
Other adverbs show
Degree of intensity:
Very slowl(y) fairly dangerous(ly) really good/well
The attitude of the speaker to what he or she is saying:
Perhaps obviously fortunately
Connections in meaning between sentences (see connectives):
However furthermore finally
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Adverbial Phrase
An adverbial phrase is a group of words that functions in the same way as a single adverb. For example: by car, to school, last week, three times a day, first of all, of course:
They left yesterday. (adverb)
She looked at me strangely. (adverb)
They left a few days ago. (adverbial phrase)
She looked at me in a strange way. (adverbial phrase)
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Adverbial Clause
Similarly, an adverbial clause functions in the same way as an adverb. For example:
It was raining yesterday. (adverb)
It was raining when we went out. (adverbial clause)
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Auxiliary verbs
These are verbs that are used together with other verbs. For example:
We are going
Lucy has arrived
Can you play
In these sentences, going, arrived and play are the main verbs, has and can are auxiliary verbs, and add extra meaning to the main verb.
The most common auxiliary verbs are be, have and do (all of which can also be main verbs).
Be is used in continuous forms (be +ing) and in passive forms:
We are going away. Was the car damaged?
Have is used in perfect verb forms:
Lucy has arrived. I haven’t finished.
Do is used to make questions and negatives in the simple present and past tenses:
Do you know the answer? I didn’t see anybody.
More than one auxiliary verb can be used together. For example:
I have been waiting for ages. (have and been are auxiliary verbs).
The remaining auxiliary verbs are model verbs, eg can, will.
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Clause
A clause is a group of words that expresses an event (she drank some water) or a situation (she was thirsty/she wanted a drink). It usually contains a subject (she in the examples) and verb (drank/was/wanted).
Note how a clause differs from a phrase:
A big dog
(a phrase – this refers to ‘a big dog’ but doesn’t say what the dog did or what happened to it)
A big dog chased me
(a clause – the dog did something)
A sentence is made up of one or more clauses:
It was raining (one clause)
It was raining and we were cold (two main clauses joined by and)
It was raining when we went out (main clause containing a subordinate clause – the subordinate clause is underlined)
A main clause is complete on its own and can form a complete sentence (eg it was raining.). A subordinate clause (when we went out) is part of the main clause and cannot exist on its own. In the following examples, the subordinate clauses are underlined):
You’ll hurt yourself if you’re not careful
Although it was cold, the weather was pleasant enough
Where are the biscuits (that) I bought this morning?
John, who was very angry, began shouting.
What you said was not true.
Although most clauses require a subject and verb, some subordinate clauses do not. In many such cases, the verb be can be understood. For example:
The weather, although rather cold, was pleasant enough.
(=although it was rather cold)
When in Rome do as the Romans do.
(= when you are in Rome)
Glad to be home George sat down in his favourite armchair.
(= he was glad to be home)
See also adverbial clause, noun clause, participate, phrase relative clause, sentence
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Coherence and cohesion
An effective text needs to be coherent and cohesive.
The term coherence refers to the underlying logic and consistency of a text. The ideas expressed should be relevant to one another so that the reader can can follow the meaning:
The term cohesion refers to the grammatical features in a text which enable the parts to fit together. One way of creating cohesion is the use of connectives:
I sat down and turned on the television. Just then, I heard a strange noise.
The phrase ‘just then’ relates these events in time.
Cohesion is also achieved by the use of words (such as pronouns) that refer back to other parts of the text. In these examples, such words are underlined:
There was a man at the door. I had never seen him before.
We haven’t got a car. We used to have one, but we sold it.
I wonder whether Sarah will pass her driving test. I hope she does. (=I hope Sarah passes her driving test)
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Comma
A comma is a punctuation mark used to help the reader by separating parts of a sentence. It sometimes corresponds to a pause in a speech.
In particular we use commas:
To separate items in a list (but not usually before and):
My favourite sports are football, tennis, swimming and gymnastics.
I got home, had a bath and went to bed.
To mark off extra information:
Jill, my boss, is a 28 year old.
After a subordinate clause which begins a sentence:
Although it was cold, we didn’t wear our coats.
With many connecting adverbs (eg however, on the other hand, anyway, for example): Anyway, in the end I decided not to go.
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Conjunction
A word used to link clauses within a sentence. For example, in the following sentences, but and if are conjunctions:
It was raining but it wasn’t cold.
We won’t go out if the weather’s bad.
There are two kinds of conjunction:
- Co-ordinating conjunctions (and, but or and so). These join (and are placed between) two clauses of equal weight.
Do you want to now or shall we wait a bit longer?
And, but and or are also used to join words or phrases within a clause.
- Subordinating conjunctions (eg when, while, before, after, since, until, if, because, although, that). These go at the beginning of a subordinate clause:
We were hungry because we hadn’t eaten all day.
Although we’d had plent to eat, we were still hungry.
We were hungry when we got home.
See also clause, connective
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Connective
A connective is a word or phrase that links clauses or sentences. Connectives can be conjunctions (eg but, when, because) or connecting adverbs (eg however, then, therefore).
Connecting adverbs (and adverbial phrases and clauses) maintain the cohesion of a text in several basic ways, including:
Addition also, furthermore, moreover
Opposition however, nevertheless, on the other hand
Reinforcing besides, anyway, after all
Explaining for example, in other words, that is to say
Listing first(ly), first of all, finally
Indicating result therefore, consequently, as a result
Indicating time just then, meanwhile, later
Commas are often used to mark off connecting adverbs or adverbial phrases or clauses:
First of all, I want to say…
I didn’t think much of the film. Helen, on the other hand, enjoyed it.
Connecting adverbs and conjunctions function differently. Conjunctions (like but and although) join clauses within a sentence. Connecting adverbs (like however) connect ideas but the clauses remain separate sentences:
I was angry but I didn’t say anything. (but is a conjunction – one sentence)
Although I was angry, I didn’t say anything. (although is a conjunction – one sentence)
I was angry. However, I didn’t say anything. (however is an adverb – two sentences)
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Direct speech and indirect speech
There are two ways of reporting what somebody says, direct speech and indirect speech.
In direct speech, we use the speaker’s original words (as in a speech bubble). In a text, speech marks (‘…’, “…” – also called inverted commas or quotes) mark the beginning and end of direct speech:
Helen said, ‘I’m going home’.
‘What do you want?’ I asked
In indirect (or reported) speech, we report what was said but do not use the exact words of the original speaker. Typically we change pronouns and verb tenses, and speech marks are not used:
Helen said (that) she was going home
I asked them what they wanted
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Ellipsis
Ellipsis is the omission of words in order to avoid repetition. For example:
I don’t think it will rain but it might. (= it might rain)
‘Where were you born?’ ‘Bradford’ (= I was born in Bradford)
An ellipsis is also the term used for three dots (…) which show that something has been omitted or is incomplete.
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Exclamation
An exclamation is an utterance expressing emotion (joy, wonder, anger, surprise, etc) and is usually followed in writing by an exclamation mark (!). Exclamations can be interjections:
Oh dear!
Good grief!
Ow!
Some exclamations begin with what or how:
What a beautiful day!
How stupid (he is)!
What a quiet little girl.
Exclamations like these are a special type of sentence (‘exclamative’) and may have no verb.
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Exclamation Mark (!)
An exclamation mark is used at the end of a sentence (which may be exclamative, or declarative) or an interjection to indicate strong emotion:
What a pity!
Get out!
It’s a goal!
Oh dear!
See also exclamation, sentence
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Hyphen (-)
A hyphen is sometimes used to join the two parts of a compound noun, as in golf-ball and proof-read. But it is much more usual for such compounds to be written as single words (eg football, headache, bedroom) or as separate words without a hyphen (golf ball, stomach ache, dining room, city centre).
However, hyphen are used in the following cases:
-
in compound adjectives and longer phrases used as modifiers before nouns:
a foul-smelling substance
a well-known painter
a German-English dictionary
a one-in-a-million chance
a state-of-the-art computer
a ten-year-old girl
-
in many compound nouns where the second part is a short word like in, off, up or by:
a break-in
a write-off
a mix-up
a passer-by
-
in many words beginning with the prefixes co-, non- and ex-:
co-operative
non-existent
ex-husband
Hyphens are also used to divide words at the end of a line of print.
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Imagery
Use of language to create a vivid sensory image – often visual. May include:
Vocabulary choice of synonym, for example, sprinted/ran/raced, selection of adjectives and adverbs
Simile he ran like the wind
Metaphor his feet had wings
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Metaphor
Where the writer writes about something as if it were really something else. Fowler describes it as an ‘imaginative substitution’. For example: he is an ass; love’s meteor. A poisoned apple passed along from generation to generation (McGough).
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Modal Verb
The modal verbs are:
Can/could
Will/would
Shall/should
May/might
Must/ought
These auxiliary verbs are used to express such ideas as possibility, willingness, prediction, speculation, deduction and necessity. They are all followed by the infinitive, and ought is followed by to + infinitive:
I can help you.
We might go out tonight.
You ought to eat something.
Stephanie will be here soon.
I wouldn’t do that if I were you.
I must go now.
These verbs can occur with other auxiliary verbs (be and have):
I’ll be leaving at 11.30.
You should have asked me.
They must have been working.
In this context have is unstressed and therefore identical in speech to unstressed of; this is why the misspelling of for standard have or ‘ve is not uncommon.
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Noun
A noun is a word that denotes somebody or something. In the sentence My younger sister won some money in a competition, ‘sister’, ‘money’ and ‘competition’ are nouns.
Many nouns (countable nouns) can be singular (only one) or plural (more than one). For example sister/sisters, problem/problems, party/parties. Other nouns (mass nouns) do not normally occur in the plural. For example: butter, cotton, electricity, money, happiness.
A collective noun is a word that refers to a group. For example, crowd, flock, team. Although these are singular in form, we often think of them as plural in meaning and use them with a plural verb. For example, if we say The team have won all their games so far, we think of ‘the team’ as ‘they’ (rather thank ‘it’).
Proper nouns are the names of people, places, organisations, etc. These normally begin with a capital letter: Amanda, Birmingham, Microsoft, Islam, November.
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Noun Phrase
A noun phrase is a wider term than ‘noun’. It can refer to a single noun (money), a pronoun (it) or a group of words that functions in the same way as a noun in a sentence, for example:
A lot of money
My younger sister
A new car
The best team in the world
Similarly, a noun clause functions in the same way as a noun. For example:
The story was not true (noun).
What you said was not true. (noun clause)
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Onomatopoia
Words which echo sounds associate with their meaning: clang, hiss, crash, cuckoo.
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Paragraph
A section of a piece of writing. A new paragraph marks a change of focus, a change of time, a change of place or a change of speaker in a passage of dialogue.
A new paragraph begins on a new line, usually with a non-line gap separating it from the previous paragraph. Some writers also indent the first line of a new paragraph.
Paragraphing helps writers to organise their thoughts, and helps readers to follow the story line, argument or dialogue.
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Personification
A form of metaphor in which language relating to human action, motivation and emotion is used to refer to non-human agents or objects or abstract concepts: the weather is smiling on us today; Love is blind.
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Possession
We use an apostrophe +s for the possessive form:
My mother’s car
Joe and Fiona’s house
The cat’s tail
James’s ambition
A week’s holiday
With a plural ‘possessor’ already ending in s (eg parents), an apostrophe is added to the end of the word:
My parents’ car
The girls’ toilets
But irregular plurals (eg men, children) take an apostrophe +s:
Children’s clothes
The regular plural form (-s) is often confused with possessive –‘s:
I bought some apples. (not apple’s)
Note that the possessive words yours, his hers, ours, theirs, and its are not written with an apostrophe.
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Phrase
A phrase is a group of words that act as one unit. So dog is a word, but the dog, a big dog or that dog over there are all phrases. Strictly speaking, a phrase can also consist of just one word. For example, in the sentence Dogs are nice, ‘dogs’ and ‘nice’ are both one-word phrases.
A phrase can function as a noun, an adjective or an adverb;
A noun phrase a big dog, my last holiday
An adjectival phrase (she’s not) as old as you, (I’m) really hungry
An adverbial phrase (they left) five minutes ago, (she walks) very slowly
If a phrase begins with a preposition (like in a hurry, along the lane), it can be called a prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase can be adjectival or adverbial in meaning:
Adjectival (I’m) in a hurry, (the man) with long hair
Adverbial (they left) on Tuesday, (she lives) along the lane
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Preposition
A preposition is a word like at, over, by and with. It is usually followed by a noun phrase. In the examples, the preposition and the following noun phrase are underlined:
We got home at midnight.
Did you come here by car?
Are you coming with me?
They jumped over fence.
What’s the name of this street?
I fell asleep during the film.
Preposition often indicate time (at midnight/during the film/on Friday), position (to the station/over a fence). There are many other meanings, including possession of this street), means (by car) and accompaniment (with me).
In questions and a few other structures, prepositions often occur at the end of the clause:
Who did you go out with?
We haven’t got enough money to live on.
I found the book I was looking for.
In formal style, the preposition can go before whom or which (with whom, about which etc,):
With whom do you wish to speak?
Many prepositions (eg on, over, up) can also be used as adverbs (without a following noun or pronoun):
We got on the bus. (preposition – followed by a noun phrase)
The bus stopped and we got on. (adverb – no following noun or pronoun)
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Pronoun
There are several kinds of pronoun, including:
Personal pronouns
I/me, you he/him, she/her, we/us, they/them, it
I like him. They don’t want it.
Possessive pronouns
Mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs, its
Is this book yours or mine?
Reflexive pronouns
Myself, herself, themselves etc.
I hurt myself. Enjoy yourselves!
Indefinite pronouns
Someone, anything, nobody, everything etc
Someone wants to see you about something.
Interrogative pronouns
Who/whom, whose, which, what
Who did that? What happened?
Relative pronouns
Who/whom, whose, which, that
The person who did that … The thing that annoyed me was …
Many determiners can also be used as pronouns, including this/that/these/those and the quantifiers (some, much etc). For example:
These are mine.
Would you like some?
Pronouns often ‘replace’ a noun or noun phrase and enable us to avoid repetition:
I saw your father but I didn’t speak to him. (= your father)
‘We’re going away for the weekend.’ ‘Oh, are you? That’s nice’. (= the fact you’re going away)
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Relative Clause
A relative clause is one that defines or gives information about somebody or something. Relative clauses typically begin with relative pronouns (who/whom/whose/which/that):
Do you know the people who live in the house on the corner? (Defines ‘the people’)
The biscuits (that)Tom bought this morning have all gone. (Defines ‘the biscuits’)
Our hotel, which was only two minutes from the beach, was very nice. (gives more information about the hotel)
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Semi-colon (;)
A semi-colon can be used to separate two main clauses in a sentence:
I liked the book; it was a pleasure to read.
This could also be written as two separate sentences:
I like the book. It was a pleasure to read.
However, where the two clauses are closely related in meaning (as in the above example), a writer may prefer to use a semi-colon rather than two separate sentences.
Semi-colons can also be used to separate items in a list if these items consist of longer phrases. For example:
I need large, juicy tomatoes; half a pound of unsalted butter; a kilo of fresh pasta, preferably tagliatelle; and a jar of black olives.
In a simple list, commas are used.
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Sentence
A sentence can be simple, compound or complex.
A simple sentence consists of one clause:
It was late.
A compound sentence has two or more clauses joined by and, or, but or so. The clauses are of equal weight (they are both main clauses):
It was late but I wasn’t tired.
A complex sentence consists of a main clause which itself includes one or more subordinate clauses:
Although it was late, I wasn’t tired. (subordinate clause beginning with although underlined)
Simple sentences can also be grouped as follows according to their structure:
Declarative (for statements, suggestions, etc):
The class yelled in triumph. Maybe we could eat afterwards:
Interrogative (for questions, requests, etc):
Is your sister here? Could you show me how?
Imperative (for commands, instructions, etc):
Hold this! Take the second left.
Exclamative (for exclamations):
How peaceful she looks. What a pity!
In writing, we mark sentences by using a capital letter at the beginning, and a full stop (or question mark or exclamation mark) at the end.
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Synonym
Words which have the same meaning as another word, or very similar: wet/damp. Avoids overuse of any word; add variety.
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Tense
A tense is a verb form that most often indicates time. English verbs have two basic tenses, present and past, and each of these can be simple or continuous. For example:
Present Past
I play (simple) I played (simple)
I am playing (continuous) I was playing (continuous)
Additionally, all these forms can be perfect (with have):
Present perfect Past perfect
I have played (perfect) I had played (perfect)
I have been playing I had been playing
(perfect continuous) (perfect continuous)
English has no specific future tense. Future time can be expressed in a number of ways using will or present tenses. For example:
John will arrive tomorrow.
John will be arriving tomorrow.
John is going to arrive tomorrow.
John is arriving tomorrow.
John arrives tomorrow.
See also verb
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Text Type
This term describes texts which share a purpose: to inform/persuade/describe. Whole texts or parts of texts with specific features – patterns of language, structure, vocabulary – which help them achieve this purpose may be described as belonging to a particular text type. These attributes are not obligatory, but are useful in discussing text and in supporting development of a range of writing skills.
Texts may consist of mixed genres: for example, a guide-book may contain procedural text (the path or route) and report information about exhibits).
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Trigraph
Three letters representing one phoneme: high; fudge.
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Verb
A verb is a word that expresses an action, a happening, a process or a state. It can be thought of as a ‘doing’ or ‘being’ word. In the sentence Mark is tired and wants to go to bed, ‘is’, ‘wants’ and ‘go’ are verbs. Sometimes two or more words make up a verb phrase, such as are going, didn’t want, has been waiting.
Most verbs (except modal verbs, such as can or will) have four or five different forms. For example:
Base form or + -s + -ing (present simple past
Infinitive participle) past participle
Wait waits waiting waited
Make makes making made
Drive drives driving drove driven
A verb can be present or past:
I wait/she waits (present)
I waited/she waited (past)
Most verbs can occur in simple or continuous forms (be + ing):
I make (simple present)/I’m making (present continuous)
She drove (simple past)/she was driving (past continuous)
A verb can also be perfect (with have):
I have made/I have been making (present perfect)
He had driven/he had been driving (past perfect)
If a verb is regular, the simple past and the past participle are the same, and end in -ed. For example:
Wanted
Played
Answered
Verbs that do not follow this pattern are irregular. For example:
Make/made
Catch/caught
See/saw/seen
Come/came//come
See also active and passive, auxillary verbs, infinitive, modal verbs, tense.
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